Economics USA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Economics USA - Essay Example If markets are doing well in some part of the world it reflects in other parts of the world. Precisely if the market goes down it results in a ripple effect that brings down most of the markets in the world. It was believed that when a commodity was produced there would be demand for the product. But the whole scenario of the market changed upside down, markets crashing; unemployment was increasing, rise in inflation, prices were falling and eventually factories being closed. It was believed that markets correct themselves but it was proven wrong by the great depression. Maynard Keynes's theory hold good, according to his theory fall in investment spending might result in fall in consumption spending. US economy is the world's largest and powerful economy, a slight change in its markets would result in a ripple effect throughout the world markets. The US has proven itself as the land of opportunities for many people around the globe. Like many of the economies the US has seen the Booms and Busts of the markets that brought happiness in good times and sorrow in bad times. In 1920's the US went through the great depression and slowly and steadily markets stabilized and experts called this as the Business Cycle. In late 1990's due to the Bubble Burst the markets crashed and in consequent years it bounced back.

Cloud Computing Models Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cloud Computing Models - Research Paper Example As such, my analysis will be based on reading Addressing Export Control in the Age of Cloud Computing and recommending the best path for the company to take. Export Control in the United States plays a critical role in ensuring that the national interests and foreign policy regulations are adhered to. United States places restriction on the export of some software, items and technology. The Departments of Commerce, Defense, Interior, Energy and other US agencies control the flow of software out of United States. Cloud computing is a new and emerging concept. One of the most fascinating aspects of cloud computing is the autonomy it offers. Though it has been with us not for long, it is undisputable it has proven to be a major commercial and SME success catalyst and hopefully will continue for the next decades. Clouds are of particular interest not only with expanding tendency to outsource IT to cut on management overheads and to widen existing limited IT infrastructures, but even more notably, they reduce the entrance barrier for new players to deliver their respective goods and services to a wider market with minimal entry and exit costs and infrastructure. The lack of term or volume commitments, pay as you go pricing model, and unrestricted entry and exit seem to offer a license to behave impulsively. Tempting as it may be to shift deployment to the cloud, IT manager realize that their business depend on thoughtful planning (Lorna Uden, 2012). The key policy questions that the company is likely to face include privacy, jurisdiction, and security. The concept of jurisdiction is applicable where data originates from one location i.e. US and find itself in another location i.e. Europe. Because export control primarily concerns movement of data, then the question of whether the company will satisfy expose control regulations when it adopts the cloud need to be answered (Villasenor, 2011). The products

Selecting An Appropriate Method Of Intervention Social Work Essay

Selecting An Appropriate Method Of Intervention Social Work Essay Intervention is rarely defined. It originates from the Latin inter between and venire to come and means coming between Trevithick, 2005: 66. Interventions are at the heart of everyday social interactions and make inevitably make up a substantial majority of human behaviour and are made by those who desire and intend to influence some part of the world and the beings within it (Kennard et al. 1993:3). Social work interventions are purposeful actions we undertake as workers which are based on knowledge and understanding acquired, skills learnt and values adopted. Therefore, interventions are knowledge, skills, understanding and values in action. Intervention may focus on individuals, families, communities, or groups and be in different forms depending on their purpose and whether directive or non-directive. Generally, interventions that are directive aim to purposefully change the course of events and can be highly influenced by agency policy and practice or by the practitioners perspective on how to move events forward. This may involve offering advice, providing information and suggestions about what to do, or how to behave and can be important and a professional requirement where immediate danger or risk is involved. In non-directive interventions the worker does not attempt to decide for people, or to lead, guide or persuade them to accept his/her specific conclusions (Coulshed and Orme, 1998: 216). Work is done in a way to enable individuals to decide for themselves and involves helping people to problem solve or talk about their thoughts, feelings and the different courses of action they may take (Lishman, 1994). Counselling skills can be beneficial or important in this regard (Thompson 2000b). Work with service users can therefore involve both directive and non-directive elements and both types have advantages and disadvantages (Mayo, 1994). Behaviourist, cognitive and psychosocial approaches tend to be directive but this depends on perspective adopted and the practitioners character. In contrast, community work is generally non-directive and person-centred. Interventions have different time periods and levels of intensity which are dependent on several factors such as setting where the work is located, problem presented, individuals involved and agency policy and practice. Several practice approaches have a time limited factor such as task-centred work, crisis intervention and some behavioural approaches and are often preferred by agencies for this reason. In addition, practice approaches that are designed to be used for a considerable time such as psychosocial are often geared towards more planned short-term, time limited and focused work (Fanger 1995). Although negotiation should take place with service users to ensure their needs and expectations are taken into account, it is not common practice for practitioners to offer choice on whether they would prefer a directive or non-directive approach or the practice approach adopted (Lishman, 1994). However, this lack of choice is now being recognised and addressed with the involvement of service users and others in the decision-making process in relation to agency policy, practice and service delivery (Barton, 2002; Croft and Beresford, 2000). The purpose and use of different interventions is contentious. Payne (1996: 43) argues that the term intervention is oppressive as it indicates the moral and political authority of the social worker. This concern is also shared by others with Langan and Lee (1989:83) describing the potentially invasive nature of interventions and how they can be used to control others. Jones suggests that in relation to power differences and the attitude of social workers especially with regards to people living in poverty: the working class poor have been generally antagonistic toward social work intervention and have rejected social works downward gaze and highly interventionist and moralistic approach to their poverty and associated difficulties (Jones, 2002a: 12). It is recognised that intervention can be oppressive, delivered with no clear purpose or in-depth experience however, some seek and find interventions that are empathic, caring and non-judgemental due to practitioners demonstrating rele vant experience and show appropriate knowledge (Lishman, 1994:14). For many practitioners, these attributes are essential in any intervention and are demonstrated through commitment, concern and respect for others which are qualities that are valued by service users (Cheetham et al. 1992; Wilson, 2000). Dependent on the nature of help sought there are different opinions on whether interventions should be targeted on personal change or wider societal, environmental or political change. Some may want assistance in accessing a particular service or other forms of help and not embrace interventions that may take them in a particular direction i.e. social action (Payne et al. 2002). In contrast, problems may recur or become worse if no collective action is taken. Importance has reduced in relation to methods of intervention over recent years as social work agencies have given more focus to assessment and immediate or short-term solutions (Howe, 1996; Lymbery 2001). This is strengthened by the reactive nature of service provision which is more concerned with practical results than with theories and principles. This has a reduced effect on workers knowledge of a range of methods resulting in workers using a preferred method which is not evidenced in their practice (Thompson, 2000). Methods of intervention should be the basis of ongoing intervention with service users, but often lacks structured planning and is reactive to crisis. This reactive response with emphasis on assessment frameworks is concerning, as workers are still managing high caseloads and if not supervised and supported appropriately, workers are at risk of stress and eventual burn-out (Jones, 2001; Charles and Butler, 2004). Effective use of methods of intervention allows work to be planned, structured and prioritised depending on service users needs. Methods can be complicated as they are underpinned by a wide range of skills and influenced by the approach of the worker. Most methods tend to follow similar processes of application: assessment, planning of goals, implementation, termination, evaluation and review. Although the process of some methods is completed in three/four interactions others take longer. This difference shows how some methods place more or less importance on factors such as personality or society, which then informs the type of intervention required to resolve issues in the service users situation (Watson and West, 2006). More than one method can be used in conjunction with another, depending on how comprehensive work with service users needs to be (Milner and OByrne, 1998). However, each method has different assessment and an implementation process which looks for different types of information about the service users situation for example, task centred looks for causes and solutions in the present situation and psychosocial explores past experiences. Additionally, the method of assessment may require that at least two assessments be undertaken: the first to explore the necessity of involvement and secondly, to negotiate the method of intervention with the service user. An effective assessment framework that is flexible and has various options is beneficial but should not awkward or time consuming to either the worker or the service user. As Dalrymple and Burke (1995) suggest, a biography framework is an ideal way as it enables service users to locate present issues in the context of their life both past and present. Workers should aim to practice in a way which is empowering and the process of information gathering should attempt to fit into the exchange model of assessment, irrespective of the method of intervention and should be the basis of a working relationship which moves towards partnership (Watson and West, 2006). As part of the engagement and assessment process, the worker needs to negotiate with the service user to understand the issue(s) that need to be addressed and method(s) employed and take into account not only the nature of the problem but also the urgency and potential consequences of not intervening (Doel and Marsh, 1992). Importance should be placed on presenting and underlying issues early in the assessment process as it enables the worker to look at an assessment framework and approach that assists short or long-term methods of intervention. An inclusive and holistic assessment enables the service user to have a direct influence on the method of intervention selected and be at the heart of the process. The process of assessment must be shared with and understood by the service user for any method of intervention to be successful (Watson and West, 2006). The workers approach also has an influence on method selection as this will affect how they perceive and adapt to specific situations. The implementation of methods is affected by both the values of the method and value base of the individual worker. The worker will also influence how the method is applied in practice through implementation, evaluation, perceived expertise and attitude to empowerment and partnership. Methods such as task centred are seen to be empowering with ethnic minority and other oppressed groups as service users are seen to be able to define their own problems (Ahmad, 1990). However, when an approach is used which is worker or agency focused the service user may not be fully enabled to define the problem and results in informing but not engaging them in determining priorities. Empowerment and partnership involves sharing and involving service users in method selection, application of the method, allocation of tasks, responsibilities, evaluation and review and is crucial in enabling facing challenges in their situations and lives. However, service users can have difficulty with this level of information-sharing and may prefer that the worker take the lead role rather than negotiating something different and not wish to acquire new skills to have full advantage of the partnership offered. Selecting a method of intervention should not be a technical process of information gathering and a tick box process to achieve a desired outcome. Milner and OByrne (2002) suggest it requires combining various components such as analysis and understanding of the service user, worker and the mandate of the agency providing the service otherwise intervention could be is restrictive and limit available options. However, negotiation and the competing demands of all involved parties must be considered and the basis of anti-oppresive practice established. Methods of intervention can be a complex and demanding activity especially in terms of time and energy and therefore, short-term term methods are seen as less intensive and demanding of the worker as well as more successful in practice. However, Watson and West (2006: 62) see this as a misconception, as the popular more short-term methods often make extensive demands on the workers time and energy. Workers are often dealing with uncertainty as each service user have different capabilities, levels of confidence and support networks. Therefore, there is no one ideal method for any given situation but a range of methods that have both advantages and disadvantages and as Trethivick (2005: 1) suggests workers need to have a toolkit to begin to understand people and need to widen the range of options available in order for them to respond flexibly and appropriately to each new situation (Parker and Bradley, 2003). When using methods of intervention, workers have to be organised to ensure that the task is proactively carried out and often attempt to prioritise involvement with service users against both local and national contexts and provide an appropriate level of service within managerial constraints. This prioritisation means in practice that, given the extensive demands, work using methods can only be with four or five service users at any one time and with the additional pressure of monitoring and supervising service users and reports, risk response is often responsive and crisis driven (Watson and West, 2006). To work in an empowering and anti-oppressive perspective is to ensure that intervention focuses clearly on the needs of the service user, is appropriate to the situation than the needs of the service. An understanding of these competing demands and the workers ability to influence decision-making processes does impact on method selection however, this should not mean that the service is diluted and methods be partially implemented as this is not conducive to managerial or professional agendas on good practice. Thompson (2000:43) sees this as the set of common patterns, assumptions, values and norms that become established within an organisation over time and a concern of workers is competitive workplace cultures where ability is based on the number of cases managed rather than the quality that is provided to service users which may result in use of less time-consuming methods. For work to be effective, an ethical and a professional not just a bureaucratic response to pressures faced is required and is not about the service user fitting into the worker or agencys preferred way of working but looking at what is best for the service user and finding creative ways to make this happen. Workers need to be careful not to seen as the expert who will resolve the situation as even the most established and experienced practitioners have skills gaps and often develop skills when working with the service users. This process of learning in practice requires good support and supervision, enabling the worker to reflect on assumptions about service users and their capabilities especially in relation to gender, race, age or disability to prevent internalised bias to impact on what the service user requires to work on to change the situation (Watson and West, 2006). It is crucial to appreciate the situation from the service users perspective and see them as unique individuals as Taylor and Devine (1993: 4) state the clients perception of the situation has to be the basis of effective social work. This concern is also shared by Howe (1987:3) describing the clients perception is an integral part of the practice of social work. Service users often have their own assumptions about what social work is and what workers are able to provide which is generally based on past relationships and experiences for example, black service users experience may reflect a service which in the past was not appropriate to their needs (Milner and Byrne, 1998: 23) but to alleviate this practitioners need to work in an open, honest and empowering manner and recognise that although service users may be in negative situations they also have strengths and skills that need to be utilised in the social work relationship. Workers should ensure that written agreements are developed that acknowledge all participants roles and responsibilities and avoid assumptions or issues (Lishman, 1994), this avoids breakdown in trust and encourages honesty and open shared responsibility between service user and worker. This involves negotiation on what should be achieved, by whom, including agency input. Agreements can provide the potential for empowering practice that involves partnership. However, cognisance has to be taken to ensure that the agreement does not become a set of non-negotiated tasks that service users have no possibility of achieving, combined with no reciprocal commitment or obligations by the worker as this does not address the issue of empowerment or oppression and can reinforce the power difference (Rojek and Collins, 1988). The final stage of the process is termination which should be planned and allow both parties time and opportunity to prepare for the future however, it has to be carefully and sensitively constructed and is much easier to achieve if the work has been methodical with clear goals as it demonstrates what has been achieved. Evaluation is beneficial as it enables the service user and worker to be reminded of timescales and can acknowledge the service users increasing skills, empowerment, confidence and self-esteem which can be utilised after the intervention has ended. Endings can however, be difficult for both the worker and service user resulting from various factors such as complexity of service users situation, issues of dependency and lack of clarity about purpose and intervention. This lack of clarity can result in a situation of uncertainty for both worker and service user (Watson and West, 2006). Finally, termination as part of the change process creates opportunities but also fea r, anxiety and loss (Coulshed and Orme, 1998). It is important for workers to take a step back and reflect on their practice and review their experiences to ensure that they are providing the best possible service in the most ethical and effective manner. Reflective practice provides support and enables workers to not just meet the needs of the organisation but also develop their own knowledge and skills and increased understanding of their own approach and the situation experienced by service users. A good tool to facilitate this is the use of reflective diaries. Reflecting in action and on action both influences and enhances current and future practice. The use of effective supervision is another process where workload management, forum for learning and problem-solving should take place which should be supportive and enabling to the worker (Kadushin and Harkness, 2002). However, the workers role in supervision is often viewed as passive as the supervisor sets the agenda. This can lead to disempowerment of the worker in relation to the agency and is potentially oppressive and discriminatory and provides a poor role model for work with service users and therefore consideration must be given on how they can create a positive and empowering relationship (Thompson, 2002). In conclusion, good practice requires workers to have knowledge to understand the person in situation, (Hollis, 1972) understanding both sociological (society and community) and psychological (personality and life span) and the interrelation and impact on the service user (Howe, 1987). A critical skill for effective and ethical practice is empowerment which is based on knowledge and values and is the difference between informing and genuine partnership and the importance of active participation of service users throughout the process. Social work is a value based activity and workers through reflection and supervision can all learn from experiences, adapt and enhance these to develop practice and gain self-awareness to understand how they themselves and their approach impacts on service users.

Kaffir Boy :: essays papers

Kaffir Boy Slaves in Their Homes â€Å" Sirens blared, voices screamed and shouted, wood cracked and windows shattered, children bawled, dogs barked and footsteps pounded†(7). This scene is from the autobiography Kaffir Boy written by Mark Mathabane. That is one of the scenes he had to live through every morning in apartheid South Africa. Apartheid is a policy of segregation and economic discrimination against non-whites. Apartheid system affected every black person living in South Africa during that time. It forced blacks to become slaves in their own country. The system forced blacks to live in unsanitary environments, work-degrading jobs and carry passes, and receive limited education. Blacks and whites were living in different sections during apartheid. While whites lived comfortable lives in their extravagant mansions and driving their fancy cars blacks had to live in a disease infested neighborhood with no electricity or in door plumbing. Approximately one thousand people lived in shacks that were squeezed together in a one-mile zone. The alleys were filled with dirt, rats, human wasted and diseases. Blacks lived in houses made of â€Å"old whitewash, a leaking ceiling of rusted Inx propped up by a thin wall of crumbling adobe bricks, two tiny windows made of cardboard and pieces of glass, a creaky, termite-eaten door low for a person of average height to pass through...and a floor made of patches of cement earth†(31). Living in such a degrading environment kills self-esteem, lowers work ethic and leaves no hope for the future. Degrading low paying jobs were the only jobs available for black men. Women worked as servants for whites. Men had to work in mines, clean up toilets or work as police officers abusing their own people. â€Å"Shit-men-belligerent immigrant workers who, because of what they did, were looked upon by many black people-went about the communal lavatories picking up buckets of excrement†(83). Working as servants for whites was one of the better jobs for black women. Blacks could not walk around freely in their own country without carrying a passbook. Without a passbook, blacks could not work or travel. The passbook had to be paid for by black families who did not have any money. They were arrested and put in jail if their passbooks were not in order. Blacks were trapped with no way out, not even the hope of education.

From Failure to success Essay

Robert Kennedy’s statement that â€Å"Only those who dare to fail greatly can ever achieve greatly† has been painfully evident in my life. Until recently, I had never dared to fail greatly at anything, and as a result, I never achieved greatly at anything either. Luckily, I have learned the importance of attempting something when there’s a looming possibility of failure. At Boys’ State this summer, I spent a week living with 300 other young men while learning about how North Carolina’s government works. To give us a firm grasp of the governmental process, each floor elected town officials, each dorm elected county officials, and the three dorms together elected the state officials. The Boys’ State program also had its own moot court program from which Supreme Court Justices were elected. At Boys’ State, I ran for positions in the town and county government, and for Supreme Court Justice. Of the seven positions I competed for, I only won two elections. I count this as a failure because the only positions I won were positions that had no candidates to oppose me. The loss that affected me the most was Supreme Court Justice. This was the position I had wanted to win even before I arrived at Boys’ State, and I gave up all of my afternoon activity time so that I could participate in the moot court program and remain an eligible candidate for Supreme Court Justice. Unfortunately, the elections for justices were the last of all the voting, and by midnight, everybody wanted to get back to their dorms so the time for our speeches was cut from one minute to ten seconds. Needless to say, I was so unprepared for the sudden change of events, that I barely had time to say my name and one reason I was running before I ran out of time. I lost the election, but the loss taught me that I needed to become more visible so that I would not have to depend on a speech for people to realize that I was a person they should vote for. However, if I had the chance to go back and change anything I had done there, I probably wouldn’t change a thing. The reasons for this are not as difficult to understand as they probably should be. Firstly, if I went back and changed anything I had done then, I would not have learned that lesson, and would now be lacking a very important experience in my life. Secondly, good things also came from my loss of the election for Supreme Court Justice. In my failure, I brought the  attention of the gubernatorial candidate onto me. The next morning, he asked me if I would like to be his Secretary of Crime Control and Public Safety which is one of the highest positions at Boys’ State. After a moment of shock, I immediately accepted the position. Thus, as a result of my own great failure, I achieved greatly.

Personality Studies Essay

The term â€Å"physiognomy† refers to features of the face, when these features are used to infer the character or temperament of an individual. Physiognomy associates any feature of the face and head with personal characteristics and certain personality traits and abilities. Physiognomic messages might include a person’s genetic background (e.g., race, ethnicity), genetic diseases (e.g., Down’s syndrome), and more fuzzy concepts such as romantic compatibility, suitability for certain positions or the destiny of the person. As a practice, physiognomy has a long history in Western and Eastern cultures. It still attracts attention as a curiosity and books and popular articles retain an interest. Merton Method for Employers Holmes W. Merton invented the Merton Method in the late 19th century to match a person’s character to a suitable job. Merton specialized in matching personal characteristics to vocations, and he invented a unique set of traits that he claimed are relevant to job performance. He divided the face into dozens of different areas, each area reflecting one or more of his traits, thus matching a face to a job. Many large corporations used this method to make employment and job assignment decisions. Stereotypes of Police Caricature of the criminal: thug with small, beady, close-set eyes, large jaw and puffy cheeks, bent nose, unshaven with threatening expression. Analysis of physiognomic characteristics has been employed in the criminal justice system. Some paid legal consultants offer advice to trial lawyers about their clients, prospective jurors, and witnesses based on their facial characteristics. They know that jurors respond to the faces of the defendant and the witnesses, so they try to optimize the favorableness of the impressions jurors are likely to form (such consultants are most often used by the defense). For example, research shows that a baby-faced person is less likely to be convicted of an intentional crime and more likely to be convicted of a negligent crime. Some consultants also claim to have insight into the characteristics of prospective jurors based on their faces. An old face reading tradition in law enforcement circles is that you can tell a criminal fro m his or her face. Surveys of policemen indicate that even today, many believe they can detect the criminal by examining their face. Acting Another area in which physiognomy is used is the selection of actors to fill roles. For example, pedantic women, evil or virtuous men, and incompetent or stupid characters are often portrayed by actors who â€Å"look the part†. Character actors often spend their professional lives performing only limited roles that match their facial appearance. It is important to note that none of these applications has any scientific evidence to support it and none uses any of the scientific evidence and theory as a basis for its practice. Palmistry or chiromancy is the art of evaluating a person’s character and foretelling the future through the study of the palm. Palmistry can trace its roots back to India, from where it spread to China, Tibet, Egypt, Persia and Europe. Even today, the practice is found all over the world, with numerous cultural variations. Those who practice chiromancy are generally called palmists, palm readers, or hand readers. A reader usually begins by reading the person’s ‘dominant hand’ (the hand they write with or use the most) which is considered to represent the conscious mind, whereas the other hand is subconscious. Various â€Å"lines† (â€Å"heart line†, â€Å"life line†, etc.) and â€Å"mounts† (or bumps) presumably suggest interpretations by their relative sizes, qualities, and intersections. The lines are believed to carry hereditary or family traits, or to convey information about past-life or karmic conditions. The basic framewo rk for â€Å"Classical† palmistry is rooted in Greek mythology. Each area of the palm and fingers is related to a god or goddess, and the features of that area indicate the nature of the corresponding aspect of the subject. For example, the ring finger is associated with the Greek god Apollo; characteristics of the ring finger are tied to the subject’s dealings with art, music, aesthetics, fame, wealth, and harmony. The practice of chiromancy is generally regarded as a pseudoscience. There has been little research verifying palmistry’s accuracy as a system of character analysis, and so far no conclusive evidence has been provided to support a connection between the lines of the palm and a person’s character. No conclusive data have yet been found to support the claims made by hand readers with respect to life expectancy or personality type. Temperament theory has its roots in the ancient four humors theory. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BC) systemized and developed it into a medical theory. He believed certain human moods, emotions and behaviors were caused by body fluids (called â€Å"humors†): blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm, and searched for physiological reasons for different behaviors in humans. The four temperamental categories were named â€Å"sanguine†, â€Å"melancholic†, â€Å"choleric† and â€Å"phlegmatic† after the bodily humors. Each was the result of an excess of one of the humors and corresponded to a different personality type. Sanguine The Sanguine temperament personality is fairly extroverted. People of a sanguine temperament tend to enjoy social gatherings and making new friends. They tend to be creative and often daydream. However, some alone time is crucial for those of this temperament. Sanguine can also mean very sensitive, compassionate and thoughtful. Sanguine personalities generally struggle with following tasks all the way through, are chronically late, and tend to be forgetful and sometimes a little sarcastic. Often, when pursuing a new hobby, interest is lost quickly when it ceases to be engaging or fun. They are very much people persons. They are talkative and not shy. Choleric A person who is choleric is a doer. They have a lot of ambition, energy, and passion, and try to instill it in others. They can dominate people of other temperaments, especially phlegmatic types. Many great charismatic military and political figures were cholerics. They like to be leaders and in charge of everything. Melancholic A person who is a thoughtful ponderer has a melancholic disposition. Often very considerate, melancholics can be highly creative in activities such as poetry and art – and can become occupied with the tragedy and cruelty in the world. A melancholic is also often a perfectionist. They are often self-reliant and independent. Phlegmatic Phlegmatics tend to be self-content and kind. They can be very accepting and affectionate. They may be very receptive and shy and often prefer stability to uncertainty and change. They are very consistent, relaxed, rational, curious, and observant, making them good administrators and diplomats. They also believe there are twelve mixtures of the four temperaments, representing people who have the traits of two temperaments. The temperament theory is used to help understand personality. The temperaments are seen as avenues into teaching, with many different types of blends, which can help with both discipline and defining the methods used with individual children and class balance. Phrenology [frÉ ªÃ¢â‚¬â„¢nÉ”lÉ™Ê ¤Ã‰ ª] A pseudo-science related to physiognomy is Phrenology. The phrenologist claims that specific areas of the cranium reflect certain personality traits. By examining these areas of the head for size and shape, an expert can infer individual’s hidden character. This approach developed in the early 19th century, based on the discovery that areas of the cerebral cortex under the skull were differently specialized. Thus, the skull area over each area takes on certain forms matching the abilities of the brain underneath it. Unfortunately for this theory, the early ideas of specialization of the brain are seriously flawed, and the assumption that specialized areas have anything to do with shapes of the cranium is false. Nevertheless, this idea of phrenology became very popular, and many experts on phrenology published volumes describing the applications of this technique. Numerous followers promoted the idea and supplied their services to an eager public, usually for a fee. None of their claimed expertise have any basis in fact, and the subject seems a humorous relict today. Astrology is a group of systems, traditions, and beliefs which hold that the movements and positions of celestial bodies directly influence life on Earth or correspond to the events of a human’s life. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer. Astrologers believe, for instance, that the identification of the zodiacal placement of the Sun on the day of a person’s birth provides information about personality and human affairs, and helps in the interpretation of past and present events, and in the prediction of the future. Astrology is generally considered a pseudoscience or superstition by the scientific community because of a lack of statistically significant astrological predictions. Still, astrology enjoys certain popularity even nowadays. In particular, many newspapers and magazines carry predictive columns based on celestial influences in relation to an individual’s zodiac sign.